Judicial Branch

The Branch That Decides: understand courts, cases, appeals, judicial review, judges, opinions, and official court resources.

The Branch That Decides: how federal courts interpret law, resolve disputes, review government action, and connect visitors to official court resources.

Courts answer legal questions through cases, records, arguments, and written decisions.

What Federal Courts Do

The judicial branch decides real legal disputes. Federal courts interpret the Constitution, federal statutes, treaties, regulations, and agency action in cases brought by people, organizations, states, and the federal government. Courts do not write legislation or run agencies; they resolve cases, explain legal reasoning, and issue judgments that carry legal force.

That makes the judiciary different from the political branches. Congress writes law. The executive branch carries it out. Courts decide what the law means when a real dispute requires an answer.

Interpret Law Courts explain how constitutional text, statutes, regulations, and precedent apply to concrete disputes.
Resolve Disputes Judges and juries decide cases involving facts, evidence, rights, penalties, remedies, and legal duties.
Review Government Action Courts can review whether laws, executive actions, and agency decisions fit legal limits.

The Federal Court System

The federal court system works like a pyramid. District courts build the record. Courts of appeals review legal questions. The Supreme Court chooses a small number of cases to resolve major federal questions, circuit conflicts, or constitutional disputes.

District Courts The trial courts of the federal system. This is where most federal cases begin, facts are developed, witnesses testify, and judgments are entered.
Courts Of Appeals The intermediate appellate courts. Three-judge panels usually review whether a lower court applied the law correctly.
Supreme Court The highest court in the federal system and the final authority on questions of federal law.

How A Federal Case Moves

A federal case usually begins with a complaint or charge in a trial court. The parties file motions, exchange information, present evidence, and may settle before trial. If a final judgment is appealed, the court of appeals reviews the record for legal error. Only a small fraction of cases reach the Supreme Court.

Trial Record The district court is where facts are created and preserved for review.
Appeal The losing side may ask an appellate court to review legal mistakes, not retry the case from scratch.
Certiorari The Supreme Court usually chooses cases through petitions for certiorari and accepts only a small share.

Judicial Review

Judicial review is the power to decide whether government action complies with higher law. It can involve acts of Congress, executive orders, agency rules, state laws, or local actions. The Judicial Branch page introduces the concept; the standalone Judicial Review guide explains the doctrine in depth.

Read Judicial Review A full guide to how courts check government action, what limits the power, and why the doctrine is debated.
Standards Of Review Courts use different levels of scrutiny depending on the right, classification, statute, or agency action involved.
Landmark Examples Cases such as Marbury, Brown, Nixon, and Shelby County show judicial review in action.

Official Court Resources

Visitors should use official court sources for forms, rules, opinions, docket information, and public records. This section replaces the former Court Resources page so the main Judicial Branch hub is also the practical starting point.

U.S. Courts Federal court structure, forms, rules, educational resources, and official court information. Supreme Court Opinions Official Supreme Court opinions, orders, argument calendars, and case information. PACER Electronic public access to federal appellate, district, and bankruptcy court records.

Landmark Cases

Landmark cases deserve their own archive because they are reference material, not just a branch summary. The Judicial Branch page features the idea; the archive lets visitors search by case, issue, ruling, impact, or related concept.

Landmark Cases Archive Search major Supreme Court cases by facts, legal question, ruling, impact, and related guide concepts. Supreme Court Learn how the Court selects cases, hears arguments, and issues opinions. Judicial Review Understand the power behind many landmark constitutional cases.
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Find A Case

Search by case name, year, constitutional question, ruling, impact, or related topic.

1954 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision reshaped constitutional law, public education, civil rights enforcement, and the relationship between courts and state governments.Open case 2010 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision reshaped campaign finance and political spending through outside groups.Open case 2022 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision returned most abortion regulation to states and changed the constitutional landscape around substantive due process.Open case 1857 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision is widely regarded as one of the Court’s worst decisions and helped intensify the conflict that led to the Civil War.Open case 1824 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe case helped define national power over interstate commerce and the limits of conflicting state action.Open case 1963 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision made the right to appointed counsel a basic requirement of fair criminal procedure.Open case 1803 · U.S. Supreme CourtMarbury v. Madison established judicial review: the principle that federal courts may refuse to apply laws that violate the Constitution. The decision made the Constitution an enforceable limit on Congress and the President and turned the Supreme Court into a central interpreter of constitutional meaning.Open case 1819 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision strengthened national power and became a foundation for understanding implied powers and federal supremacy.Open case 1966 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision reshaped police interrogation and made Miranda warnings part of public legal culture.Open case 2015 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision nationalized marriage equality and linked liberty and equality principles.Open case 1896 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision allowed Jim Crow segregation to continue until later civil rights decisions rejected its logic.Open case 1973 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision shaped abortion law for nearly fifty years before being overruled by Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization.Open case 2013 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision changed federal voting-rights enforcement and shifted many disputes to litigation after laws take effect.Open case 1969 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision remains a leading case on student speech and school authority.Open case 1974 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe decision reinforced judicial authority and limits on presidential power.Open case 1952 · U.S. Supreme CourtThe case is a key example of judicial limits on presidential authority and separation of powers.Open case

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AbstentionAbstention is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Abuse of DiscretionAbuse of Discretion is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Administrative Office of the U.S. CourtsAdministrative Office of the U.S. Courts is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. AdmissibilityAdmissibility is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Adversarial SystemAdversarial System is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. AffirmedAffirmed means an appellate court has upheld the lower court’s decision. Agency GuidanceAgency Guidance is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Amicus BriefAmicus Brief is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Amicus CuriaeAmicus Curiae is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. AnswerAnswer is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. AppealAppeal is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. AppellantAppellant is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Appellate CourtAppellate Court is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Appellate JurisdictionAppellate Jurisdiction is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. AppelleeAppellee is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Arrest WarrantArrest Warrant is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Article III CourtArticle III Court is a federal court whose judges receive life tenure and salary protection under Article III of the Constitution. Associate JusticeAssociate Justice is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. AuthenticationAuthentication is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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BailiffBailiff is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Bankruptcy CourtA bankruptcy court is a specialized federal court that handles bankruptcy cases under federal bankruptcy law. Bankruptcy JudgeBankruptcy Judge is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Bench TrialBench Trial is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Beyond a Reasonable DoubtBeyond a Reasonable Doubt is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Bill Of AttainderA Bill Of Attainder is a law that punishes a specific person or group without a judicial trial. The Constitution forbids Congress and the states from passing bills of attainder because punishment is supposed to come through courts and due process, not legislative declaration. Binding PrecedentBinding Precedent is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. BriefA brief is a written legal argument explaining the facts, law, and reasons a court should rule a certain way. Budget HearingBudget Hearing is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Burden of ProofBurden of Proof is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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CalendarLists of measures, motions, and matters that are (or soon will become) eligible for consideration on the chamber floor. Campaign FinanceCampaign Finance is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process. Case ManagementCase Management is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Case or ControversyCase or Controversy is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Cert PetitionCert Petition is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Cert PoolCert Pool is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. CertiorariCertiorari is the Supreme Court’s discretionary order agreeing to review a lower-court decision. Chief JusticeChief Justice is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. CircuitCircuit is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Circuit CourtCircuit Court is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Circuit JudgeCircuit Judge is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Circumstantial EvidenceCircumstantial Evidence is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Civil CaseCivil Case is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Civil RightsCivil Rights is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process. Clear and Convincing EvidenceClear and Convincing Evidence is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Clear ErrorClear Error is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Clerk of CourtA clerk of court is the court official responsible for records, filings, dockets, and many administrative functions. Clerk’s OfficeClerk’s Office is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Closed SessionClosed Session is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. CM/ECFCM/ECF is the federal courts’ electronic filing and case-management system. CommissionCommission is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Compensatory DamagesCompensatory Damages is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. ComplaintA complaint is the document that starts many civil cases by stating the plaintiff’s claims and requested relief. ConcurrenceConcurrence is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Concurrent JurisdictionConcurrent Jurisdiction is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Concurring OpinionConcurring Opinion is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. ConferenceConference is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. ConfirmationConfirmation is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Confirmation HearingConfirmation Hearing is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. ContemptContempt is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Contempt of CourtContempt of Court is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. ContinuanceContinuance is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Controlling OpinionControlling Opinion is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. CounterclaimCounterclaim is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Court of AppealsA court of appeals is a federal appellate court that reviews district-court and agency decisions for legal error. Criminal CaseCriminal Case is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Criminal ProcedureCriminal Procedure is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process. CrossclaimCrossclaim is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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DamagesDamages is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. De Novo ReviewDe Novo Review is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Declaratory JudgmentDeclaratory Judgment is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DecreeDecree is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Default JudgmentDefault Judgment is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DefendantA defendant is the person, official, organization, or government body being sued or charged in a case. Defense CounselDefense Counsel is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DeliberationDeliberation is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Denial of CertiorariDenial of Certiorari is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DepositionDeposition is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DictaDicta is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Direct EvidenceDirect Evidence is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DiscoveryDiscovery is the pretrial process where parties exchange information, documents, testimony, and evidence relevant to the case. DismissalDismissal is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DisqualificationDisqualification is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DissentDissent is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Dissenting OpinionDissenting Opinion is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DistrictDistrict is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. District CourtA district court is the main federal trial court where many civil and criminal cases begin. District JudgeDistrict Judge is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. DocketDocket is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Due ProcessDue process means government must follow fair legal procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property. Due Process And Equal ProtectionDue process and equal protection are Fourteenth Amendment principles that protect fair government procedure, basic liberty, and equal treatment under law. Due Process of LawDue Process of Law is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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En BancEn Banc is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. En Banc ReviewEn Banc Review is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Equal ProtectionEqual protection means government cannot treat similarly situated people differently without a constitutionally sufficient reason. Equal Protection ClauseThe Equal Protection Clause requires states to provide equal protection of the laws and is central to civil-rights and discrimination cases. Ex Post Facto LawAn Ex Post Facto Law retroactively makes conduct criminal or increases criminal punishment after the conduct occurred. The Constitution forbids ex post facto criminal laws because people must be able to know the law before they can be punished for violating it. Exclusionary RuleExclusionary Rule is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Exclusive JurisdictionExclusive Jurisdiction is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Executive SessionA period under Senate rules during which executive business is considered on the floor. (Legislation is considered only. ExpungementExpungement is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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Federal CourtA federal court is a court created under federal authority to decide cases involving federal law, the Constitution, or other matters Congress assigns to federal courts. Federal JudgeFederal Judge is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Federal Judicial CenterFederal Judicial Center is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Federal Register NoticeFederal Register Notice is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Federal Rules of Appellate ProcedureThe Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure govern appeals in the federal courts of appeals. Federal Rules of Civil ProcedureThe Federal Rules of Civil Procedure govern most civil litigation in federal district courts. Federal Rules of Criminal ProcedureThe Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure govern criminal proceedings in federal courts. Federal Rules of EvidenceThe Federal Rules of Evidence govern what information may be admitted and how evidence is handled in federal court. FilingFiling is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. First AmendmentFirst Amendment is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process. Free SpeechFree Speech is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process.

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Grand JuryGrand Jury is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Grant of CertiorariGrant of Certiorari is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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Habeas CorpusHabeas Corpus is a legal procedure that lets a person challenge unlawful detention in court. The Constitution allows suspension of habeas corpus only in narrow circumstances involving rebellion or invasion when public safety may require it. Harmless ErrorHarmless Error is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. HearingA formal meeting of a congressional committee (or subcommittee) to gather information from witnesses for use in its. HearsayHearsay is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. HoldingA holding is the part of a court decision that states the legal rule necessary to resolve the case.

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in Forma Pauperisin Forma Pauperis is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Incorporation DoctrineIncorporation Doctrine is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process. IndictmentIndictment is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Inferior CourtInferior Court is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. InformationInformation is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. InjunctionInjunction is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Intermediate ScrutinyIntermediate Scrutiny is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. InterrogatoriesInterrogatories is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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JudgeJudge is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. JudgmentJudgment is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Judicial ActivismJudicial Activism is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Judicial AppointmentJudicial Appointment is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Judicial BranchJudicial Branch is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Judicial ConferenceJudicial Conference is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Judicial RestraintJudicial Restraint is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Judicial ReviewThe power of courts to decide whether government action complies with higher law. Judicial VacancyJudicial Vacancy is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. JurisdictionJurisdiction is a court’s legal power to hear a case and issue a binding decision. JuryJury is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Jury TrialJury Trial is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. JusticeJustice is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Justiciable ControversyJusticiable Controversy is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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Law ClerkLaw Clerk is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Legal ReasoningLegal Reasoning is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Local RulesLocal Rules is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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Magistrate JudgeMagistrate Judge is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. MajorityMajority is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Majority OpinionMajority Opinion is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Majority RuleMajority Rule is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. MandamusMandamus is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. MandateMandate is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Markup SessionMarkup Session is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Merits DocketMerits Docket is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. MootnessMootness means a court may no longer decide a case because the live dispute has ended or the requested relief can no longer matter. Mootness DoctrineMootness Doctrine is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. MotionA motion is a formal request asking a court or legislative body to take a particular action.

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Notice of AppealNotice of Appeal is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

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Open SessionOpen Session is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Opening BriefOpening Brief is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. OpinionAn opinion is a written explanation of a court’s decision and the legal reasoning behind it. Opinion AnnouncementOpinion Announcement is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Oral ArgumentOral argument is a formal court session where lawyers answer judges’ questions and explain why their side should prevail. OrderOrder is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Original JurisdictionOriginal Jurisdiction is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. OriginalismOriginalism is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Oversight CommitteeOversight Committee is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records.

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PACERPACER is the federal courts’ online system for public access to court records and docket information. PanelPanel is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Panel RehearingPanel Rehearing is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Per Curiam OpinionPer Curiam Opinion is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Personal JurisdictionPersonal Jurisdiction is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Persuasive AuthorityPersuasive authority is legal reasoning that a court may consider but does not have to follow. Petit JuryPetit Jury is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. PetitionWritten statement from any entity other than a state legislature – boards, commissions, cities, towns, individuals –. Petition for CertiorariPetition for Certiorari is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. PetitionerA petitioner is the party asking a court, often an appellate court or the Supreme Court, to take a specific action. PlaintiffA plaintiff is the person or organization that starts a civil lawsuit by filing a complaint. PluralityPlurality is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Plurality OpinionPlurality Opinion is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. PrecedentA prior court decision that guides later courts deciding similar legal questions. Preliminary InjunctionPreliminary Injunction is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Preponderance of the EvidencePreponderance of the Evidence is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Pretrial ConferencePretrial Conference is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. PrivacyPrivacy is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process. Pro Hac VicePro Hac Vice is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Pro SePro Se is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Probable CauseProbable Cause is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Procedural Due ProcessProcedural due process requires fair steps such as notice and a meaningful chance to be heard before government deprives a person of protected interests. ProhibitionProhibition is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. ProsecutorProsecutor is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Published OpinionPublished Opinion is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Punitive DamagesPunitive Damages is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

R

Rational Basis ReviewRational Basis Review is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. RationaleRationale is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Reasonable SuspicionReasonable Suspicion is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Record on AppealRecord on Appeal is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. RecusalRecusal is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Regulatory ImpactRegulatory Impact is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. ReinstatementReinstatement is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. RelevanceRelevance is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. ReliefRelief is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. RemandRemand is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. RemandedRemanded means an appellate court has sent a case back to a lower court for more proceedings. RemedyRemedy is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. RemittiturRemittitur is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. RemovalRemoval is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Reply BriefReply Brief is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Request for AdmissionRequest for Admission is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Requests for ProductionRequests for Production is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. RespondentA respondent is the party answering a petition, especially in appellate or Supreme Court proceedings. Response BriefResponse Brief is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Retired JudgeRetired Judge is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. ReversedReversed means an appellate court has set aside the lower court’s decision as wrong in whole or in part. RipenessRipeness asks whether a dispute has developed enough for a court to decide it instead of reviewing a speculative future problem. Rule of FourRule of Four is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

S

SanctionSanction is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Search WarrantSearch Warrant is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Senior StatusSenior Status is a federal court term connected to federal court administration; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. SentenceSentence is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Service of ProcessService of Process is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. SettlementSettlement is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Shadow DocketShadow Docket is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Sitting JusticesSitting Justices is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Specialized CourtSpecialized Court is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Specific PerformanceSpecific Performance is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Standard of ReviewStandard of Review is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. StandingStanding is the requirement that a person bringing a case has a real, personal stake in the dispute. Standing Committee ReportA standing committee report explains a committee’s action, reasoning, and recommended changes to a bill. Standing OrderStanding Order is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Stare DecisisStare decisis is the principle that courts should generally follow earlier decisions when the same legal issue returns. StayStay is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Stay Pending AppealStay Pending Appeal is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Strict ScrutinyStrict Scrutiny is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. Sua SponteSua Sponte is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Subject-Matter JurisdictionSubject-Matter Jurisdiction is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Substantive Due ProcessSubstantive due process asks whether certain government actions violate fundamental liberty even if procedures were formally followed. Summary DispositionSummary Disposition is a federal court term connected to judicial decisions and opinions; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Summary JudgmentSummary Judgment is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. SummonsSummons is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Suppression MotionSuppression Motion is a federal court term connected to evidence and proof; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Supremacy ClauseSupremacy Clause is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process. Supreme CourtThe Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States and has final authority over federal constitutional and legal questions.

T

Temporary Restraining OrderTemporary Restraining Order is a federal court term connected to rights and remedies; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. TermTerm is a federal court term connected to Supreme Court practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. TextualismTextualism is a government term used to understand public authority, official process, rights, responsibilities, or records. TrialTrial is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Trial CourtTrial Court is a federal court term connected to federal court structure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

U

Unpublished OpinionUnpublished Opinion is a federal court term connected to appellate practice; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have.

V

VacatedVacated means a court has set aside a previous judgment or order so it no longer has legal effect. VenueVenue is a federal court term connected to jurisdiction and justiciability; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. VerdictVerdict is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Voir DireVoir Dire is a federal court term connected to litigation procedure; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Voting RightsVoting Rights is a civic and constitutional law term used to understand government power, rights, or public process.

W

WritWrit is a federal court term connected to court pleadings and parties; it helps explain who is involved, what step is happening, and what legal effect the step may have. Writ of CertiorariA writ of certiorari is the formal order by which the Supreme Court agrees to review a case.

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